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Only data points obtained from the second cycle were used for analysis. At the end of the two cycles, the cantilever was retracted until no contact area was visible. For the three SCL investigated, a protocol simulating short-term wear was included, consisting of two sets of 50 wear cycles performed at 2 mN normal force between each set of seven normal forces. The wear cycles are intended to represent the effect that repeated blinking has on the frictional properties of the lens surface [13]. For the corneal tissue sample, only one ramp was chosen, as the short wear cycles induced damage of the tissue (data not shown). The measured stroke length was 1 mm, and the sliding speed was 0.1 mm/s, in accordance with the optimized measurement procedure published by Roba et al. [13].

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From low to high CoF, the three lens materials were senofilcon A (silicone hydrogel), etafilcon A (hydrogel), and lotrafilcon B (silicone hydrogel) [13]. The lenses were characterized by means of microtribometry, using a modified version of the experimental set-up described by Roba et al. [13], which allowed for accurate determination of the contact area. The sliding work expended on the SCL was compared to that on a rabbit cornea, which acted as a model for the in-eye {immediatemax-air.com|bot for money|crypto bot} situation in the absence of a SCL. The measurement program used for the comparative friction tests involved applying three sets of seven normal forces ranging from 0.25 to 4 mN (depending on the cantilever used). The normal loads were chosen to correspond to contact pressures that have been reported as appropriate between eyelid and cornea during a blink [30]. The friction force was recorded during two cycles, backwards and forwards, for each normal force.

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A methodology has been presented to characterize frictional drag on soft materials in terms of work. Another approach to distinguish between the frictional properties of the lenses in this paper could be to rely solely on interfacial shear stress. However, such an approach would lack the time-dependent perspective, an important part of the work concept, which allows for cumulative measurements of expended frictional energy to be carried out.

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In addition, wear can be expected to be more severe on lens C as a consequence of the higher frictional forces involved during sliding. To extract the contact area of the cornea, a different methodology from that of the SCL was needed. This is at least one order of magnitude lower than that of any of the SCL tested. No difference in contact area was found between the soft and the hard base curve (Fig. 5). This online trading platform offers a wide range of assets to trade such as cryptocurrencies, traditional stocks, forex pairs, ETFs, and more thereby helping expand the trade portfolio. It has an intuitive interface and offers several customization options to improve trading strategies.

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In this publication, an alternative strategy is proposed to characterize the friction behavior of SCL materials by a single figure of merit, namely average work. Average work is defined as the average value of a nonlinear function fitted to the friction versus normal force data, multiplied by a relevant sliding distance. The friction force is described as a function of the contact area, as derived from the elastic foundation model (EFM) as presented by Rennie et al. [19] and the interfacial shear stress. The transition from CoF to work not only circumvents the necessity for a linear relationship between the lateral and normal forces, but also represents the energy consumed when two interfaces slide over each other. To illustrate the work concept from an eyelid-SCL perspective, three commercial SCL materials, which have previously been reported to have different CoF under similar conditions, were tested.

To further mimic the in vivo situation, a soft counter-surface would be desirable. As found by Dunn et al. in a migrating contact between a hard and soft material, the friction force at a velocity of 0.1 mm/s (used in this work) was higher than at increased velocities (0.2–1.5 mm/s). The friction force measured with the counter-surface in our study could thus generate an overestimation of the drag between eyelid and the contact lenses in vivo. Future studies will be devoted to developing a counter-surface where the interface and the modulus more closely resemble that of the cornea-eyelid system.

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There is evidence that comfort of SCLs is correlated with the frictional properties of the lens material [10, 11]. As shown by Roba et al. [13] under similar conditions (with a lubricant that contained only serum and lysozyme, with no added lipids), the CoF of a number of commercially available SCL falls within, or even below, this range. This would suggest that some SCL would be completely exempt from issues related to comfort.

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The frictional behavior of model hydrogel–hydrogel contacts has recently been studied by Dunn et al. [49] and was compared to the same situation where one of the sliding partners was rigid. They found a decrease in friction with speed when one of the surfaces was hard, but almost no dependence of friction on speed in the hydrogel–hydrogel “gemini” contact. Urueña et al. [50] expanded on this study and investigated the influence of sliding velocity and crosslink density of the hydrogels in a “gemini” contact on the friction force.

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